← Public research record

Stage 1: Literature Review

Our literature review brings together hand-drying research, engineering descriptions, environmental assessments and the popular ‘shake and fold’ paper-towel demonstration.

MECHANISM ≠ EFFECT SIZE

How much water comes off?

Flicking removes excess surface water before drying, but the sources do not show how much water a given number of flicks removes.

PRIOR PROTOCOLS

Has flicking been tested on its own?

No. Patrick et al. used two flicks, and Suen et al. used at least five shakes before comparing drying methods [1][7]. These studies did not separate the effect of flicking itself from the drying that follows.

REAL-WORLD VALUE

Does it save useful resources?

Environmental comparisons of hand drying depend on equipment, resource use, and modeling assumptions.[1][3][11] The sources do not show how much flicking saves in towels or electricity at the same final dryness.

What the review contributes

The review identifies relevant prior work, connects water removal, dryer running time, and resource savings, and names the questions the sources leave open.

References

Numbered as cited in the review abstract on our homepage. Access notes record how each source was read.

  1. Patrick DR, Findon G, Miller TE. Residual moisture determines the level of touch-contact-associated bacterial transfer following hand washing. Epidemiology & Infection. 1997;119(3):319–325. Full text: open Cambridge Core PDF via DOI. Source
  2. Huang C, Ma W, Stack S. The hygienic efficacy of different hand-drying methods: a review of the evidence. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2012;87(8):791–798. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2012.02.019. Source
  3. Gregory JR, Montalbo TM, Kirchain RE. Analyzing uncertainty in a comparative life cycle assessment of hand drying systems. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 2013;18:1605–1617. doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0606-0. Full author manuscript, DSpace@MIT. Source
  4. CDC. Hand Hygiene Frequently Asked Questions. Page date: 14 March 2024; accessed 10 September 2026. Source
  5. Smith J. How to use a paper towel. TEDxConcordiaUPortland, 2012. Demonstration transcript. Source
  6. Marcenac P, Kim S, Molinari NA, Person M, Frankson R, Berendes D, McDonald C, Yoder J, Hill V, Garcia-Williams A. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices around hand drying in public bathrooms during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. American Journal of Infection Control. 2021;49(9):1186–1188. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2021.03.021. Full text. Source
  7. Suen LKP, Lung VYT, Boost MV, Au-Yeung CH, Siu GKH. Microbiological evaluation of different hand drying methods for removing bacteria from washed hands. Scientific Reports. 2019;9:13754. Full text. Source
  8. Reynolds KA, Sexton JD, Norman A, McClelland DJ. Comparison of electric hand dryers and paper towels for hand hygiene: a critical review of the literature. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2021;130(1):25–39. Full text. Source
  9. Gustafson DR, Vetter EA, Larson DR, Ilstrup DM, Maker MD, Thompson RL, Cockerill FR. Effects of 4 hand-drying methods for removing bacteria from washed hands: a randomized trial. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2000;75(7):705–708. Indexed abstract: 100 enrolled, 99 evaluable. Source
  10. Montalbo TM, Gregory JR, Kirchain RE. Life Cycle Assessment of Hand Drying Systems. MIT Materials Systems Laboratory, 28 October 2011. Dyson-commissioned report; recovered report text via Yumpu mirror, especially sections 2.2.1 and 3.1 and Appendix A.5 (viewer pages 7–18 and 97). Source
  11. Joseph T, Baah K, Jahanfar A, Dubey B. A comparative life cycle assessment of conventional hand dryer and roll paper towel as hand drying methods. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;515–516:109–117. Source
  12. Moura IB, Bentley K, Kaur K, Wilcox MH. Understanding the impact of different hand drying methods on viral aerosols formation and surface contamination in indoor environments. Frontiers in Public Health. 2025;13:1664322. Full text; read with disclosure correction [14]. Source
  13. Gião MS, Vardoulakis S. Aerosols and Bacteria From Hand Washing and Drying in Indoor Air. Frontiers in Public Health. 2022;10:804825. Full text. Source
  14. Moura IB, Bentley K, Kaur K, Wilcox MH. Corrigendum to Understanding the impact of different hand drying methods on viral aerosols formation and surface contamination in indoor environments. Frontiers in Public Health. 2025;13:1731810. Conflict-of-interest correction, 6 November 2025. Source
  15. Todd ECD, Michaels BS, Smith D, Greig JD, Bartleson CA. Outbreaks where food workers have been implicated in the spread of foodborne disease. Part 9. Washing and drying of hands to reduce microbial contamination. Journal of Food Protection. 2010;73(10):1937–1955. Indexed abstract. Source
  16. Dickerson AK, Mills ZG, Hu DL. Wet mammals shake at tuned frequencies to dry. Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 2012;9(77):3208–3218. Indexed abstract; animal-mechanism evidence only. Source